Timeline
10,000 B.C.E to C.E. 1299

This timeline was developed as an aid for contextualizing biblical texts - both Hebrew and Christian - as well as provide a historical backdrop to the 1st and 2nd century Christian communities after the close of the Christian canon. In addition, history up to the end of the 13th century has been included in order to help 21st Century Christians understand more fully the various religious developments that emerged in the world over this critical period - developments which still exert powerful influences upon religious beliefs and practices in the world's great religions to the present day as well as influence the 21st century's historical and socio-policitical realities in the Near/Middle East.

Every attempt has been made to highlight all the events of particular import to Jews, Christians and Muslims. If any have been omitted, please write me. The divisions into particular historical periods is from a strictly Judaeo-Christian/Western viewpoint.

• all dates before the invention of the Julian calendar (Old Style) are approximate. The Gregorian Calendar, (New Style) adopted by Christians in 1582, as well as other corrections after that date also create dating descrepancies.

	Read chronologically from earliest date to most recent (start at the bottom and scroll up - recommended method)
	Read chronologically from most recent date to earliest (start at the top and scroll down)

THE MIDDLE AGES REACH THEIR ZENITH C.E. 1271 - 1340 (THE BLACK PLAGUE)

1299: Pisa surrenders its claims in Corsica and Sardinia to Genoa, which rivals Venice in the Mediterranean region.
1298: English king Edward I defeats Sir William Wallace at Falkirk and reconquers Scotland.
1297: Sir William Wallace expels the English from Scotland.
1291: The Swiss Confederation (Switzerland) is formed.

1290: Edward I expels the Jews from England.

1290: The Muslim Khaljis begin their rule of India's Delhi Sultanate; their reign ends in 1320.

1285: Work is completed on the Reims Cathedral, a fine example of Gothic architecture that includes a superb stained glass Rose window.

1284: The Leaning Tower of Pisa is completed; a top story is added in 1350.
1282: Edward I of England overwhelms Llewelyn the Last and conquers Wales.
1282: Sicilians revolt against the French during the Sicilian Vespers.
1281: A Mongol invasion force lands in Japan but fails when a storm scatters its ships.
1278: Andorra becomes an independent principality.
1275: Venetian Marco Polo arrives at the court of Kublai Khan in China.

1273: St. Thomas Aquinas does his final work on his Summa Theologica. (back to top)

	THE MIDDLE AGES REACH THEIR HIGHEST ACHIEVEMENTS C.E. 1271 - 1340 (THE BLACK PLAGUE)
	THE CHRISTIAN CRUSADES C.E. 1096 - 1270

1270: The Eighth Crusade begins.

1267: Roger Bacon, an English monk, describes gunpowder as a mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal.
1265: Simon de Montfort is killed at the Battle of Evesham.
1264: During the Barons' War Simon de Montfort and the English barons defeat Henry III at the Battle of Lewes.
1262: Iceland submits to the rule of the king of Norway.
1261: Michael VIII Palaeologus regains Constantinople and restores the Byzantine Empire.
1260: Kublai Khan establishes the Mongol, or Yüan, Dynasty in China.
1258: The Mongols destroy the Baghdad caliphate.

1257: The Sorbonne Theological College is opened at the University of Paris.
1256: The Order of Augustinian Hermits (Augustinians) is founded.

1255: King Sunjata dies; the vast Mali Empire of Africa is firmly established.

1254: Alfonso III of Portugal wrests the Algarve region from the Moors (Muslims).
1250: Louis IX (St. Louis) of France is captured by the Muslims during the Seventh Crusade; he is ransomed in 1254.

1250: The Mamluks, a corps of guards of non-Muslim slave origin, establish a dynasty in Egypt.

1248: The Seventh Crusade begins.
1248: Albertus Magnus returns to Cologne to preside over the intellectual training of the new members of the Dominican Order; among his students will be Thomas Aquinas.
1248: Work is begun on the Alhambra, a palace in southern Spain that is one of the finest examples of Moorish architecture in Europe.

1241: In Germany, an agreement between Lübeck and Hamburg forms the nucleus of what becomes the Hanseatic League.
1240: Russian prince Alexander Nevsky defeats the Swedes at the Battle of the Neva.
1240: The forces of Mali king Sunjata enter the Ghana capital and sack it; Africa's Ghana Empire essentially comes to an end.
1240: Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II establishes standards for practicing physicians.
1240: Giovanni Cimabue, the dominant figure in 13th-century Florentine painting and the first great Italian painter, is born.
1238: The Siamese oust their Khmer overlords and establish the kingdom that will become Thailand.
1237: The Mongol Golden Horde invades Russia.
1235: The first part of the Roman de la Rose, the celebrated medieval French verse allegory, is begun by the poet Guillaume de Lorris.
1232: James I of Aragon captures the Balearic Islands.

1231: Pope Gregory IX institutes the Inquisition.

1230: King Sunjata inherits the small Mandingo kingdom of Kangaba and founds Africa's Mali Empire.

1228: The Sixth Crusade begins.

1222: The University of Padua in Italy is founded.
1221: Genghis Khan and his Mongol army enter Afghanistan.
1220: The Mongols, commanded by Genghis Khan, take Samarkand.
1219: Genghis Khan and his Mongol horsemen invade Iran.

1217: The Fifth Crusade begins with an attack on Egypt.

1215: Genghis Khan captures Beijing, China.
1215: King John of England signs the Magna Carta at Runnymede.
1214: King Philip Augustus of France defeats Emperor Otto IV and King John of England at the Battle of Bouvines.

1212: The Children's Crusade begins.

1211: Mongol forces under Genghis Khan invade China.

1209: St. Francis of Assisi founds the Franciscan order.
1208: Innocent III calls a crusade against Albigensianism in France; the Albigensian Crusade begins in 1209.

1206: Muhammad Ghori dies, and Kutb-ud-din Aibak, first of the Slave kings, succeeds to the throne of India's Delhi Sultanate; the Slave kings reign until 1290.
1206: Genghis Khan, in undisputed possession of Mongolia, is proclaimed supreme khan.

1204: The Crusaders capture and sack Constantinople
1204: The schism between Orthodox and Roman churches becomes permanent.

1203: The Sosso ruler Sumanguru usurps the throne of the Ghana Empire.

1202: The Fourth Crusade begins.

1200: Cambridge University is founded in England.
1200: Zen Buddhism takes root in Japan.
1200: The medieval German epic the Nibelungenlied is written..
1200: The greatest of the medieval Japanese war tales, The Tale of the Heike, is written.
1199: Richard I is killed in battle in France and is succeeded as king of England by John.

1198: Innocent III is elected pope; his papacy is the apex of medieval ecclesiastical power.
1197: Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI dies, and a succession crisis begins.

1193: Muhammad Ghori (Mu'izzz-ad-Din Muhammad) conquers India, founds his capital at Delhi, and establishes the Delhi Sultanate.
1192: Richard I of England is captured by Leopold V of Austria.

1192: Work is begun on the spectacular Gothic cathedral at Bourges.
1191: Henry VI becomes Holy Roman Emperor.

1191: Richard I of England captures Cyprus.

1190: Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I drowns in Asia Minor en route to the Holy Land.

1190: The Middle English poet Layamon becomes the first English writer to deal with King Arthur and his knights in his Brut.

1187: Saladin's forces defeat the Crusaders and capture Jerusalem; the Third Crusade is called.

1187: Bulgaria reestablishes its independence from the Byzantine Empire.
1185: The Kamakura shogunate is established in Japan by Minamoto Yoritomo.
1180: Minamoto Yoritomo leads his clan in revolt against Taira rule in Japan.

1180: Magnificent stained glass windows are created for the Canterbury Cathedral.

1179: Snorri Sturluson, author of two outstanding works of Icelandic literature, the younger Edda and Heimskringla, is born.

1176: Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I is defeated by the Lombard League at Legnano.
1174: Saladin conquers Damascus and Syria.
1174: The Romanesque Cathedral of Monreale, Sicily, is built.
1171: English king Henry II annexes Ireland, but it is centuries before English rule is extended over the entire island.

1171: Saladin becomes sultan of Egypt.

1170: Thomas à Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, is murdered by four knights of Henry II.

1169: English forces invade Ireland in support of Dermot MacMurrough, the one Irish king who has refused to submit to Rory O'Connor.
1168: Oxford University is probably founded at this date in England.
1166: Rory O'Connor unifies much of Ireland under his rule.

1165: Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon) visits Palestine and settles in Fustat, Egypt; he becomes a codifier of Jewish law and court physician to Saladin.
1163: Work is begun on the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, which will become the most celebrated Gothic cathedral in the world.

1156: In Japan, Taira Kiyomori begins his campaign to seize power; he removes most members of the opposing Minamoto clan from office by 1159.

1155: Frederick I (Barbarossa), first of the Hohenstaufen line, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV.

1154: The Plantagenet dynasty begins in England with Henry II.

1147: The Second Crusade begins.
1139: Alfonso Henriques, count of Portugal, assumes the title of King Alfonso I after defeating the Muslims at Ourique.

1138: Conrad III becomes king of Germany.
1137: Louis VII becomes king of France.

1132: The Church of Saint-Denis, one of the first examples of Gothic architecture, is begun in Paris.

1126: In China, the Jurchen capture the Northern Sung capital of Kaifeng; the Southern Sung Dynasty is established with its capital at present-day Hangzhou.
1126: Averroës, the leading Arab philosopher of the western school, is born in Córdoba, Spain.
1125: Construction of the temple of Angkor Vat, the first great example of Khmer architecture in Cambodia, is begun.

1122: The Concordat of Worms ends the Investiture Controversy.
1121: Peter Abelard's writings on the nature of the Trinity are condemned at the Council of Soissons.
1119: Peter Abelard, French theologian, becomes a monk after the relatives of Héloïse, to whom he is secretly married, have him attacked and emasculated.
1118: The Knights Templar, a military and religious order, is founded.

1108: Louis VI succeeds his father Philip I as king of France.

1105: Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV is captured and forced to abdicate by his son, Henry V.
1105: Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac of Troyes), the leading commentator on the Talmud, dies.

1102: Croatia and Hungary are united under Hungarian rule.
1100: The later Toltec civilization arises in Tula in the Mexican state of Hidalgo; it endures for about 200 years.
1100: According to tradition, Cusco is founded by Manco Capac, the first Inca, or emperor.

1100: A Latin patriarch is installed at Antioch; the schism between Greek and Latin churches is firmly established.

1100: In the following century, Confucianism, enriched by elements of Taoism and Buddhism, enters the phase known as Neo-Confucianism

C.E. 1099: The First Crusade regains Jerusalem and establishes the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.
C.E. 1098: St. Robert of Molesme founds the first Cistercian monastery.
C.E. 1098: St. Anselm of Canterbury writes Why God Became Man, a treatise on the Incarnation in which he enunciates his interpretation of redemption.(back to top)

	THE CHRISTIAN CRUSADES C.E. 1096 - 1270
	THE EAST/WEST SPLIT FOMENTS C.E. 867 - 1095

C.E. 1095: At the Council of Clermont, France, Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade against the Turks, which begins in C.E. 1096.
C.E. 1093: The cornerstone is laid for England's great Durham Cathedral.

C.E. 1091: Byzantine emperor Alexius I defeats the Normans and the Pechenegs.
C.E. 1090: Normans complete their conquest of southern Italy.
C.E. 1089: The French epic La Chanson de Roland is composed.

C.E. 1088: The north dome of the Isfahan congregational mosque, a fine example of Muslim architecture of the Seljuk period, is built.

C.E. 1086: The Domesday Book, the first English record of land use and population, is compiled.
C.E. 1085: Aided by El Cid, Alfonso I (VI) captures Toledo from the Moors.

C.E. 1084: Emperor Henry IV takes Rome and installs the antipope Clement III, who crowns the emperor.
C.E. 1080: Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV.
C.E. 1077: The Seljuks establish a dynasty in Muslim Anatolia..
C.E. 1076: The Almoravids conquer the capital of Africa's Ghana Empire; many Ghanians subsequently embrace Islam
C.E. 1076: Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV tries to depose Gregory VII over the matter of investiture.

C.E. 1075: King Vikramaditya VI of the Chalukya line of southern India is born.

C.E. 1075: Pope Gregory VII prohibits lay investiture of bishops, spawning the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.

C.E. 1072: Alfonso I (VI) becomes king of León (VI) and Castile (I).
C.E. 1071: The Normans under Robert Guiscard conquer much of Byzantine Italy.
C.E. 1066: William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, defeats the Saxon king Harold II at the Battle of Hastings.

C.E. 1063: Work is begun on the Romanesque Cathedral of Pisa.

C.E. 1057: Malcolm III kills Macbeth and becomes king of Scotland.
C.E. 1055: Tughrul Beg enters Baghdad and soon founds Iran's Seljuk dynasty; the century of their rule is one of the most creative in Iranian history.

C.E. 1054: The Greek patriarch is excommunicated by papal legates; the schism between Roman and Orthodox Christianity increases.
C.E. 1054: The Almoravids, a Muslim Berber dynasty, conquer Awdaghost in Ghana.

C.E. 1050: Movable type characters made of clay are used in China, predating Gutenberg's type by 400 years.

C.E. 1046: Henry III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.

C.E. 1042: Edward (the Confessor) becomes king of England.
C.E. 1040: Macbeth kills Duncan I and becomes king of Scotland.
C.E. 1038: Seljuk Turkish forces conquer Khurasan.
C.E. 1035: Aragon and Castile become separate kingdoms in Spain.
C.E. 1035: King Rajaraja I dies and is succeeded by his son Rajendra I; the Chola empire continues to flourish as southern India is unified.
C.E. 1030: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni dies.

C.E. 1027: Conrad II becomes Holy Roman Emperor.

C.E. 1025: Poland declines after the death of Boleslaw I.
C.E. 1021: The Byzantine Empire conquers the last Bulgarian city and rules all Bulgaria.
C.E. 1016: Danish king Canute rules England.

C.E. 1014: Pope Benedict VIII crowns Henry II Holy Roman Emperor.

C.E. 1014: Irish king Brian achieves a great victory over the Danes but is killed.
C.E. 1013: The Danes conquer England; Ethelred II flees to Normandy.
C.E. 1010: The greatest masterpiece of early Japanese literature, The Tale of Genji, is written by Murasaki Shikibu.
C.E. 1004: Henry II, the last of the Ottonian line, is crowned king of Germany.
C.E. 1002: Brian (Brian Boru) defeats the Danes and becomes king of Ireland.
C.E. 1000: Stephen I is crowned the first king of Hungary.
C.E. 1000: Venice gains dominion over the Dalmatian coast and the Adriatic Sea.
C.E. 1000: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni begins the first of his 17 territorial campaigns in India.
C.E. 1000: Leif Ericson explores the northeastern coast of North America; a Norse settlement is founded at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland.
C.E. 1000: The medical school of Salerno, Italy, the first organized medical school in Europe, flourishes.
C.E. 995: Olaf Skötkonung becomes king of Svear and extends his rule over nearly all of the settled areas of Sweden.
C.E. 991: Ethelred II (the Unready) levies the first Danegeld tax and pays the first ransom to stop Danish attacks on England.

C.E. 988: Grand Prince Vladimir I of Kiev adopts Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

C.E. 987: The Capetian Dynasty rules France, ending two centuries of Carolingian rule.
C.E. 986: Eric the Red settles Greenland.
C.E. 985: Venice and Genoa have begun trading between Western Europe and Asia.
C.E. 985: Rajaraja I, king of the Cholas of southern India, is born; the Chola empire expands and flourishes during his reign.
C.E. 983: Chiao Wei-yo of China invents the canal lock.
C.E. 980: Avicenna, Persian author of the celebrated Canon that dominates Asian and European medical schools for the next six centuries, is born.
C.E. 975: The Kingdom of Georgia is founded by Bagrat III.
C.E. 973: The Chalukya dynasty regains power in southern India; their capital is moved to Kalyani.
C.E. 969: The Ismailis (the Fatimid Dynasty) seize Egypt.
C.E. 965: Prince Sviatoslav of Kiev conquers the Khazars and extends his rule over the lower Volga and southeastern Russian steppe.

C.E. 962: Otto I is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII.

C.E. 960: Mieszko I becomes king of Poland; he rules a territory between the Oder and Vistula rivers and adopts Christianity.
C.E. 960: Alptegin, a Turk, becomes king of Ghazni in Iran and founds the Ghaznavid dynasty.
C.E. 960: T'ai Tsu establishes the Northern Sung Dynasty in China.
C.E. 950: The Postclassic period of the Maya begins; most of the cities thrive for only 300 years, and when the Spanish arrive they have been abandoned to the jungle.
C.E. 936: Otto I becomes king of Germany.
C.E. 935: A revolt by the Taira clan in Japan marks the beginning of its rivalry with the Minamoto clan.
C.E. 935: In Korea the Koryo Dynasty supplants the Kingdom of Silla.
C.E. 930: The Althing, one of the oldest legislative bodies in the world, is established in Iceland.
C.E. 911: Vikings establish a dukedom in Normandy.

C.E. 910: Berno becomes the first abbot of Cluny Abbey, which develops into a center of monastic reform.

C.E. 906: The T'ang Dynasty ends, and the brief Liang Dynasty is founded; the Five Dynasties period begins in China.
C.E. 900: Vikings begin raiding along Mediterranean coast.
C.E. 900: Harald Fairhair establishes an extensive kingdom in Norway.
C.E. 900: A gold mining industry flourishes in Africa in what is now Zimbabwe.

C.E. 899: The authority of the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad in most of western North Africa ends; it continues in Libya and Egypt.

C.E. 887: Arnulf deposes Charles III to become the last Carolingian king in Germany.
C.E. 885: Alfred the Great divides England with the Danes under the Danelaw Pact.
C.E. 884: Charles III (Charles the Fat) reunites the Carolingian Empire.
C.E. 882: Oleg, prince of Novgorod, extends his rule over Kiev.

C.E. 874: The Samanids, a Sunni Islamic dynasty, come to power in the Central Asian regions of Transoxiana and Khurasan.

C.E. 874: The Norse begin settling Iceland.
C.E. 871: Alfred the Great becomes king of Wessex and soon halts the Danish advance into England.

C.E. 867: Pope Nicholas I is condemned by the Greek patriarch, presaging the schism between Rome and the East. (back to top)

	THE EAST/WEST SPLIT FOMENTS C.E. 867 - 1095
	THE RISE OF ISLAM C.E. 622 - 866

C.E. 862: Ruirik (Rurik) becomes prince of Novgorod, the earliest Russian state.
C.E. 850: In southern India the Cholas of Tanjore rise to power and build a vast
C.E. 850: The great southern Mayan cities of the Late Classic period are abandoned, but new cities flourish in the northern Yucatán.
C.E. 850: The Chinese invent the first, and for many centuries the only, explosive: black powder.
C.E. 850: The Indian mathematician Mahavira states rules for operating with zero, which is recognized as a both a cardinal number and a placeholder
C.E. 843: The Carolingian Empire is partitioned by the Treaty of Verdun.
C.E. 830: The mathematical work Al-Jabr Wa'l Mugabalah is written by astronomer al-Khw'rizmi; the word algebra is derived from its title.
C.E. 820: The Gurjaras of Kanauj establish an empire in northern India.
C.E. 820: The great Hindu philosopher Shankara dies

C.E. 815: Maruf al-Karkhi dies; he inspired the Sufis, a mystical Islamic group.

C.E. 802: Jayavarman II establishes the Khmer kingdom of Angkor in the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) region of Cambodia.

C.E. 800: Charlemagne is crowned Western Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III.

C.E. 800: The Hildebrandslied, the only extant example of heroic poetry in Old High German, is written.
C.E. 799: The Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript, is produced in Meath, Ireland.
C.E. 793: The first recorded Viking raid of any consequence occurs at Lindisfarne on Holy Island in the British Isles.
C.E. 788: The Idrisids of Morocco become independent.

C.E. 787: The Second Council of Nicaea suppresses Iconoclasm.

C.E. 784: Japan's capital is moved to Heian (later known as Kyoto); the Heian period is dominated politically by the Fujiwara family.
C.E. 782: Alcuin of York leads a cultural revival (the Carolingian Renaissance) at Charlemagne's court at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen).
C.E. 775: An Lu-shan leads a rebellion against Emperor Hsüan Tsung of China.
C.E. 775: Ghana, the earliest of the great medieval empires of West Africa, emerges into history at about this time.
C.E. 774: Charlemagne defeats the Lombards in Italy and becomes king of the Lombards.

C.E. 762: Abbasid caliph al-Mansur constructs Baghdad as his capital.

C.E. 761: The Rustamid dynasty of Tihart, a Berber state in the Saharan Atlas in Africa, establishes its independence.

C.E. 754: The States of the Church (Papal States) are established in Italy by the Donation of Pepin.

C.E. 751: The Lombards capture Ravenna, the last Byzantine stronghold in northern taly.

C.E. 751: A Muslim army defeats a T'ang Chinese army near present-day Awliya-Ata in Central Asia.
C.E. 750: The Abbasids overthrow the Ommiad caliphate.

C.E. 750: Polynesians settle New Zealand, having come from Samoa by way of Tahiti and the Society Islands and the Cook Islands.
C.E. 747: Padmasambha introduces Tantric Buddhism into Tibet.

C.E. 735: Bede, a monk of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria whose Church History of the English Nation is the first reliable English historical work, dies.
C.E. 732: Frankish forces under Charles Martel stop Muslim expansion into Western Europe at the Battle of Tours.
C.E. 725: By this time the Arabs have overrun most of northern Africa and the power of the Byzantine Empire there has collapsed.

C.E. 712: The oldest surviving Japanese book, the Kojiki, containing myths, legends, and songs, is compiled.

C.E. 711: At the Battle of Guadalete the Muslims defeat the Visigoths, and the last Visigothic king, Roderick, dies; the foundation of Islamic power in Spain is laid.

C.E. 710: Japan's first permanent capital is established at Nara.
C.E. 701: The Taihk code gives Japan a form of central government modeled on that of T'ang China.
C.E. 701: The T'ang Chinese poet Li Po is born; he and contemporaries Tu Fu and Wang Wei are among the greatest classical Chinese poets.
C.E. 700: The Old English epic Beowulf is written in the early part of this century.

C.E. 680: Husein, son of Ali and grandson of the prophet Muhammad, is killed and beheaded at Karbala by Ommiad caliph Yazid's forces; the rise of the Shiis, or Shiites, dates from this event.

C.E. 670: The engineer Kallinikos introduces Greek fire as a naval weapon in the Byzantine Empire.
C.E. 668: Korea is unified under the Kingdom of Silla.

C.E. 661: Ali is murdered by a former supporter; Muawiyah, who had challenged Ali for the caliphate, succeeds him as caliph and establishes the Ommiad dynasty.
C.E. 656: Othman is murdered by Muslim rebels; Ali is proclaimed caliph, but a rift arises in Islam.

C.E. 651: The assassination of King Yazdijird III marks the end of Sassanian rule in Persia.
C.E. 650: The Chinese print the first paper money.

C.E. 647: Muslim Arabs take Tripolitania in Africa.

C.E. 645: In Japan the Taika reform asserts the emperor's rights over those claimed by the clans and nobles.

C.E. 644: Othman becomes caliph of Islam, succeeding the assassinated Omar.
C.E. 642: Cyrenaica and the Fezzan in Africa are invaded by the Arabs.

C.E. 642: King Pulakesin II of the South Indian Chalukyas, the greatest warrior of his time, dies; Chalukya power soon fades.

C.E. 641: Muslim Arab armies conquer Egypt and defeat the Sassanian dynasty of Persia at Nihavand.
C.E. 634: Omar becomes caliph of Islam; he founds the first Muslim state.
C.E. 633: Muslim Arab armies begin their conquest of Iraq.
C.E. 632: The prophet Muhammad dies; abu-Bakr becomes his successor (caliph) as leader of Islam.
C.E. 622: In the hegira Muhammad, prophet of Islam, is forced to flee his native Mecca for Medina; the Muslim calendar is dated from this year. (back to top)

	THE RISE OF ISLAM C.E. 622 - 866
	CHURCH AND STATE COMBINE & THE ERA OF THE "CHURCH FATHERS" C.E. 313 - 621

C.E. 621: The reign of Swinthila, first Visigothic king to rule all Spain, begins.
C.E. 618: The T'ang dynasty comes to power in China; one of the country's most glorious periods begins.
C.E. 612: Harshavardhana (Harsha) becomes the paramount ruler of northern India.
C.E. 608: South India's Chalukya king Pulakesin II is born.
C.E. 603: Pakal, the great ruler of the Maya kingdom of Palenque, is born.
C.E. 600: The Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kancheepuram, and the Pandyas of Madura become the chief powers in southern India.
C.E. 600: From the Marquesas, Polynesians have spread south to the Tuamotus and thence to Easter Island, and north to Hawaii.
C.E. 600: In the following century the Kingdom of Srivijaya succeeds in imposing its authority on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, founding one of the greatest trade empires of Asia
C.E. 600: The Maya's Late Classic period begins; the Mayan kingdoms begin to split apart, and warfare, conquest, and human sacrifice are increasingly emphasized on monuments.
C.E. 600: Work on the largest cave temple in India, the Kail\sa Temple at Ellora, is begun.
C.E. 600: Porcelain first appears in China.

C.E. 597: St. Augustine of Canterbury, sent by Pope Gregory I, begins his mission to England.
C.E. 590: Gregory I becomes Bishop of Rome, or pope.

C.E. 585: Buddhism is accepted by Japanese Emperor Yomei.
C.E. 581: The Sui dynasty is founded; China is reunified.
C.E. 568: The Lombards invade northern Italy.
C.E. 553: Justinian I reclaims Italy from the Ostrogoths.
C.E. 552: A Korean kingdom sends Buddhist priests and texts to Japan.
C.E. 542: The bubonic plague (Justinian's Plague) begins in Europe.

C.E. 537: The Sancta Sophia church in Constantinople (modern Istanbul), the foremost example of Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture, is completed.

C.E. 534: Roman law is codified and promulgated by Justinian I in the Corpus Iuris Civilis.
C.E. 533: Byzantine armies under Belisarius begin the reconquest of most of North Africa.
C.E. 531: Khosrau I, the greatest of the Sassanian rulers, begins his reign over Persia.

C.E. 529: St. Benedict of Nursia founds an order of cenobitic monks, later called Benedictines.

C.E. 527: Justinian I becomes ruler of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire).
C.E. 524: Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius is executed without trial; while in prison he writes his famous dialogue On the Consolation of Philosophy.
C.E. 507: Frankish forces under Clovis I conquer the Visigoths.
C.E. 500: A Celtic chieftain who becomes the source for the legend of King Arthur organizes a defense against Saxon invaders at the Battle of Mount Badon.
C.E. 500: In eastern North America, the Temple Mound era, characterized by large towns centered around flat-topped, pyramidal earth mounds, begins.

C.E. 500: The Jewish Talmud receives its definitive form in Babylonia.

C.E. 500: The gradual decline of Buddhism in India begins; Hinduism again becomes the dominant religion.
C.E. 500: Writing is introduced into Japan; the earliest scribes are Koreans writing in Chinese.

C.E. 496: The Franks are converted to Christianity.

C.E. 493: Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, becomes ruler of all Italy.
C.E. 486: Clovis I, king of the Franks, defeats the Roman legions in Gaul; the origins of modern France hark to this date.
C.E. 476: Germanic king Odoacer occupies Rome, ending the Western Roman Empire.
C.E. 472: Theodoric the Great becomes king of the Ostrogoths.
C.E. 455: Gaiseric and the Vandals sack Rome.
C.E. 455: Skandragupta, fifth ruler of the Gupta dynasty in India, comes to the throne.
C.E. 451: Attila the Hun invades Gaul but is turned back; the following year the Huns invade Italy.
C.E. 449: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes begin to colonize England.

C.E. 432: St. Patrick brings Christianity to Ireland.
C.E. 431: The Nestorians, a Christian sect, found a school of medicine and translate many Latin and Greek texts into Arabic, keeping ancient medical knowledge alive.

C.E. 428: The Vandals under Genseric launch a mass invasion of North Africa from Spain.
C.E. 415: India's Emperor Chandragupta II dies.
C.E. 415: Religious Taoism is founded by Kou Chienchih.
C.E. 410: Rome is destroyed by Alaric I, Visigothic king.
C.E. 409: The Vandals invade Spain.
C.E. 406: The Vandals invade Gaul.
C.E. 402: The Visigoths, led by Alaric I, are defeated in their first attempted invasion of Italy.

C.E. 401: Innocent I, Bishop of Rome, claims universal rule over the Christian Church.
C.E. 397: St. Augustine, the greatest theologian of early Christianity, publishes his autobiographical Confessions.

C.E. 396: Alaric I, king of the Visigoths, plunders Athens.

C.E. 395: Theodosius dies; the Roman Empire is permanently divided into Eastern and Western regions.

C.E. 387: Rome and Persia partition Armenia.
C.E. 383: Magnus Clemens Maximus is proclaimed emperor by rebellious Roman soldiers in Britain.

C.E. 383: St. Jerome completes an authoritative Latin translation of the Gospels from the best Greek manuscripts, the "Vulgate".

C.E. 378: Valens is killed by the Visigoths at the Battle of Adrianople.
C.E. 375: In India, Emperor Samudragupta dies and is succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.
C.E. 370: The Huns attack the Ostrogoths in what is now Ukraine, making inroads into eastern Europe.
C.E. 364: Valentinian I becomes Western Roman Emperor and Valens becomes Eastern Roman Emperor.

C.E. 330: The Roman capital moves to Byzantium, which is renamed Constantinople (now Istanbul) and later becomes the center of the Byzantine Empire.

C.E. 330: Indian emperor Samudragupta is born; his rule begins the Gupta period, often called the Golden Age of India.

C.E. 325: First Council of Nicaea is convened to deal with the Arian heresy.

C.E. 323: Constantine defeats Licinius, the Eastern Roman Emperor, at Adrianople (now Edirne).

C.E. 323: The Basilica of St. Peter in Rome, a typical early Christian church, is begun; it is demolished during the Renaissance to make way for St. Peter's Church.
C.E. 313: Constantine I issues the Edict of Milan, ending the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. (back to top)

	CHURCH AND STATE COMBINE & THE ERA OF THE "CHURCH FATHERS" C.E. 313 - 621
	-THE PERSECUTION OF JEWS AND CHRISTIANS INTENSIFIES C.E. 81 - 312

C.E. 306: Constantine is proclaimed Western Roman Emperor.

C.E. 305: Both Diocletian, Eastern Roman Emperor, and Maximian, Western Roman Emperor, abdicate.
C.E. 301: According to traditional sources, the tiny European republic of San Marino is founded.
C.E. 300: In the following century, Roman rule in North Africa begins to disintegrate in the face of Berber revolts.
C.E. 300: The history of imperial Japan begins; the civilization centered on the Yamato plain extends its authority to surrounding areas.
C.E. 300: Polynesians from Samoa have settled in the Marquesas, beginning a half century of Pacific colonization.
C.E. 300: The Maya use a symbol for zero in their base-20 number system.
C.E. 292: The Maya have developed their timekeeping system known as the long count.
C.E. 286: Diocletian rules the Eastern Roman Empire and Maximian rules the Western Roman Empire.
C.E. 267: The Goths attack Athens, Sparta, and Corinth.
C.E. 265: The Chin dynasty is established in the center of the old Chinese empire, but it fails to reunify China.
C.E. 259: The Roman army is defeated by Persians under Shapur I; Emperor Valerian is captured.
C.E. 257: Visigoths and Ostrogoths invade the Black Sea region.
C.E. 253: Plotinus, father of Neoplatonic thought, begins his discourses.

C.E. 250: Roman emperor Decius mandates the worship of Roman state gods and the oath of allegiance to the emperor; he persecutes Christians who will not comply.

C.E. 250: The Maya Early Classic period begins; the Maya form multiple competing kingdoms linked by common cultural elements.
C.E. 250: Diophantus of Alexandria is active; he introduces symbolism into algebra.

C.E. 231: Origen, probably the greatest pre-Augustinian Christian theologian, is ordained as a priest at Caesarea in Palestine.

C.E. 230: South India's Satavahanas (Andhras) dynasty comes to an end.
C.E. 224: Ardashir becomes ruler of Persia and establishes the Sassanian dynasty.
C.E. 220: The Han dynasty ends, and China is split into a number of warring states; the period of the Three Kingdoms begins.
C.E. 212: Roman citizenship is granted to all freemen of the empire..
C.E. 210: The monumental Roman baths of Caracalla are built.
C.E. 200: The Classic Period in central Mexico begins; the city Teotihuacán is its finest archaelogical monument.
C.E. 196: Roman emperor Septimius Severus sacks the city of Byzantium (modern Istanbul).
C.E. 168: Greco-Roman medicine reaches its apogee with Galen, who settles in Rome; his authoritative, dogmatic teachings are unchallenged during the next 12 centuries, stunting the development of medicine.

C.E. 161: Marcus Aurelius, author of the Meditations, becomes Roman emperor; under him, the persecution of Christians increases.
C.E. 135: A second revolt of Jewish nationalists under Bar Kochba, which began in C.E. 132, is crushed by the Romans; the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina is built on the ruins of Jerusalem, and all Jews are banned from the city.

C.E. 132: The great astronomer Ptolemy writes the Almagest (on astronomy) and the Geography.

THE LETTER OF 2ND PETER c. B.C.E. 130 - 150

C.E. 126: Hadrian's Wall is completed in Britain.
C.E. 126: The Pantheon is erected in Rome.

C.E. 117 Martyrdom of Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, at the hands of Trajan.

C.E. 117: Trajan dies and is succeeded by Hadrian as Roman emperor; from Hadrian's rule through that of Marcus Aurelius (d. C.E. 180), the Roman Empire is at its height.
C.E. 116: The great Roman historian Tacitus finishes the composition of the Histories and the Annals.

C.E. 106: Trajan conquers the city of Petra.

THE LETTER OF JUDE C.E. 110 - 130

C.E. 105: In China, Ts'ai Lun makes the first paper from macerated woven cloth, old rope, and the bark of trees.
C.E. 100: The first book of Satires by Juvenal is published shortly after this date.
C.E. 100: Nichomachus authors the first sizable book in which arithmetic is treated independently of geometry.
C.E. 100: Alchemy flourishes in Alexandria, Egypt.

THE 1ST AND 2ND LETTERS TO TIMOTHY AND THE LETTER TO TITUS C.E. 100 - 130

C.E. 98: Trajan is made emperor of Rome.
C.E. 98: Greek physician Soranus, the founder of obstetrics and gynecology, is born.

C.E. 93: Josephus writes Jewish Antiquities recounting the biblical and post-biblical history of the Jews
C.E. 90: The Council of Jamnia. The “Writings”, the third section of Hebrew Scriptures was canonized.

THE GOSPEL OF JOHN C.E. 90 - 110

THE 3 LETTERS OF JOHN C.E. 90 - 100

THE LETTER TO THE HEBREWS C.E. 90 - 95

THE APOCALYPSE OF JOHN C.E. 90 - 95

THE LETTER OF 1ST PETER C.E. 90 - 95

THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW C.E. 85 - 100

THE GOSPEL OF LUKE and THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES C.E. 85 - 100

C.E. 81: Domitian becomes emperor of Rome. (back to top)

	-THE PERSECUTION OF JEWS AND CHRISTIANS INTENSIFIES C.E. 81 - 312
	-THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND THE PAX ROMANA- BIRTH, LIFE, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS THE CHRIST THE BEGINNINGS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCHES 62/3 B.C.E. - C.E. 81

C.E. 80: The Roman Colosseum, begun and largely built by Emperor Vespasian, is dedicated by his son, Titus.
C.E. 79: Titus succeeds his father Vespasian as emperor of Rome.
C.E. 79: Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum.
C.E. 78: The Saka era begins in southern India.

THE LETTER OF JAMES C.E. 75 - 100

THE LETTER TO THE EPHESIANS C.E. 75 - 100

C.E. 73: Judea (Palestine) becomes a province of Rome.
C.E. 70: Titus suppresses the Jewish revolt against Rome; he captures and destroys Jerusalem, including the Temple.

THE GOSPEL OF MARK C.E. 70

C.E. 69: Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty, becomes Roman emperor.
C.E. 68: Nero commits suicide.

C.E. 66: In Palestine, a Jewish rebellion against Roman rule begins.
C.E. 66: The Christians flee to Pella
C.E. 65: Some historians believe Paul is martyred by Nero.

C.E. 64: Rome is devastated by fire.

C.E. 64: Tradition claims Peter is crucified in Rome.
C.E. 60: Paul is a Prisoner in Rome

THE LETTERS TO THE COLLOSIANS AND PHILEMON C.E. 58 - 60

C.E. 60: Iceni queen Boadicea rebels against Roman rule in Britain.

THE LETTER TO THE ROMANS C.E. 56 - 57

THE 1ST AND 2ND LETTER TO CORINTH C.E. 54 - 56

C.E. 54: Claudius dies, possibly as a result of poisoning; Nero becomes Roman emperor.

THE LETTER TO THE GALATIANS C.E. 53 - 54

C.E. 51: Paul travels to Corinth; the first Christian church is erected there.

THE 1ST AND 2ND LETTERS TO THESSOLONICA C.E. 50 - 52

C.E. 50: Greeks travel along the east coast of Africa to Zanzibar, while the coast further south and Madagascar are explored and colonized by Indonesian navigators.
C.E. 50: The Greek writer Plutarch, for centuries Europe's main source of knowledge of the Greco-Roman world, is born.

C.E. 50: The First Council of Jerusalem

C.E. 46: Thrace becomes a Roman province.

C.E. 44: Paul begins his work as a Christian missionary in Antioch.

C.E. 43: Roman forces under Emperor Claudius invade Britain and begin their conquest; Londinium (London) is founded.

C.E. 41 Herod Agrippa (King of Judea) is appointed.
C.E. 41 Jews are banished from Rome by Cladius

C.E. 41: Caligula is assassinated and is succeeded by Claudius as Roman emperor.
C.E. 40: Mauretania (modern Morocco) falls to the Romans; northern Africa, now under Roman administration, is divided into nine provinces.
C.E. 38: Martial, ancient Rome's greatest writer of epigrams, is born.
C.E. 37: Roman emperor Tiberius dies and Caligula succeeds him.

C.E. 30: Jesus of Nazareth, having come to Jerusalem from Galilee, is crucified by the Romans.

C.E. 25: The Han dynasty is reestablished in China.
C.E. 14: Augustus dies; he is succeeded by Tiberius as Roman emperor.
C.E. 9: Wang Mang usurps the imperial throne in China; his attempts at reform alienate even his followers.
C.E. 9: German leader Arminius defeats three Roman legions at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest.
C.E. 8: Ovid completes original text of the Metamorphoses and goes into exile at Tomis.

4 B.C.E.: Herod the Great dies (?)

4 B.C.E.: Jesus is born in Bethlehem.

4 B.C.E.: Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Stoic essayist and tragic poet of Rome, is born.
12 B.C.E.: During the reign of Augustus, Roman forces begin an attempt to conquer Germany.
19 B.C.E.: Rome completes the conquest of the Iberian peninsula, defeating the Cantabrians and other tribes of the Northern coast of present-day Spain.
26 B.C.E.: Roman historian Livy begins his great work, The History of Rome from Its Foundation..
27 B.C.E.: Octavian becomes the first Roman emperor; the Senate names him Augustus.
31 B.C.E.: Octavian (Augustus) defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII at the Battle of Actium.
35 B.C.E.: The first book of Satires by the Roman poet Horace is published.
36 B.C.E.: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa's Roman fleet defeats Sextus Pompeius Magnus at the Battle of Mylae.

37 B.C.E.: The reign of Herod the Great, king of Judea, begins; Jerusalem is embellished with many monumental buildings, and the renovations to the Temple, originally built by Israel's King Solomon, begin.

42 B.C.E.: Octavian (Augustus) and Mark Antony defeat Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus at Philippi in Macedonia.
42 B.C.E.: Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII become allies; Cleopatra becomes Mark Antony's mistress.
43 B.C.E.: Mark Antony, Octavian (Augustus), and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate in Rome.
44 B.C.E.: Julius Caesar is assassinated by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.

January 1, 45 B.C.E.: The Julian calendar, often called Old Style, is introduced.

46 B.C.E.: Julius Caesar is appointed dictator of Rome after defeating republican forces at Thapsus.
48 B.C.E.: Caesar arrives in Egypt after defeating Pompey the Great and restores Cleopatra VII to the throne.
49 B.C.E.: Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon into Italy; civil war begins.
51 B.C.E.: Julius Caesar conquers Gaul, ending the Gallic Wars.
52 B.C.E.: Vercingetorix unites the Gallic tribes in resistance to Rome but is defeated by Caesar at Alesia.
54 B.C.E.: Roman legions led by Julius Caesar invade Britain after a reconnaissance expedition the previous year.
57 B.C.E.: In southern India the Vikrama era begins.
58 B.C.E.: Caesar invades Gaul, initiating the Gallic Wars.
60 B.C.E.: Pompey the Great, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Julius Caesar form the First Triumvirate and dominate Roman politics.

63 B.C.E.: Palestine comes under Roman rule. (back to top)

	THE EARLY CHURCH EMERGES BIRTH, LIFE, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS THE CHRIST -THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND THE PAX ROMANA- 62/3 B.C.E. - C.E. 81
	HELLENISTIC JUDAISM 173/4 - 63 B.C.E.

66 B.C.E.: Pompey the Great defeats Mithridates VI Eupator in the Third Mithridatic War.
70 B.C.E.: Parthian king Phraates III becomes ruler of Persia. During his reign, warfare with the Roman Empire begins; it continues for almost 300 years.
70 B.C.E.: Vergil, the great national poet of ancient Rome and author of the epic poem the Aeneid, is born.
75 B.C.E.: The earliest surviving stupa, one of Buddhism's most important building types, the Great Stupa at Sanchi, is completed.
81 B.C.E.: Chinese historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien dies; his Records of the Grand Historian is China's first and greatest synthetic history.
82 B.C.E.: Lucius Cornelius Sulla captures Rome, becomes dictator, and reforms the government.
87 B.C.E.: Emperor Wu-ti of China dies; during his reign imperial power has been consolidated and the influence of Confucianism has grown strong.
87 B.C.E.: Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna seize control of Rome and subsequently outlaw Lucius Cornelius Sulla, leading to civil war.
88 B.C.E.: Lucius Cornelius Sulla leads Roman forces against Mithridates VI Eupator in the First Mithridatic War.
89 B.C.E.: Roman citizenship is established throughout Italian peninsula in an effort to end the Social War.
91 B.C.E.: Marcus Livius Drusus, who proposed extending citizenship to Rome's allies, is murdered; Rome and its allies begin the Social War (90-88 B.C.E.) the following year.
95 B.C.E.: Tigranes the Great reigns in Greater Armenia; he builds a short-lived empire that stretches from the Lesser Caucasus to the frontier of Palestine.
99 B.C.E.: The Roman poet Lucretius, author of De rerum natura, is born.
101 B.C.E.: Roman general Gaius Marius defeats the Cimbri, a Baltic tribe, at the Po River.
106 B.C.E.: Cicero, the greatest Roman orator and a master of Latin prose, is born.
116 B.C.E.: Roman medical encyclopedist Varro, is born; he will later apparently describe microorganisms: small creatures, invisible to the eye, which fill the air, are breathed in, and cause dangerous diseases in the human body.
120 B.C.E.: Polybius dies; his Histories details Rome's rise to power.
139 B.C.E.: Roman soldiers defeat the Celts in Portugal and established the province of Lusitania.
140 B.C.E.: Hipparchus invents trigonometry.

140 B.C.E.: One unhappy faction of devout Hasideans (strict Jewish adherents) founded a monastery at Qumran, becoming the Essenes. Another faction reconciled themselves to the realities and became the Pharisee party.
140 B.C.E.: A great assembly in Jerusalem formally confirms Simon as hereditary high priest, national leader and commander of the armed force.
141 B.C.E.: Simon drives out the last of the Syrians from the citadel of Jerusalem and finally has complete control of the city.
142 B.C.E.: The Hasmoneans establish a quasi-independent Jewish state under Simon (Jonathan's brother) and with the help of Demetrius III. Jews begin dating events from this year.

146 B.C.E.: Carthage is destroyed after a yearlong siege by Romans under Scipio Africanus Minor (the Younger).
146 B.C.E.: The Achaean League of Greek city-states is destroyed by the Romans.
149 B.C.E.: Rome's demands on Carthage instigate the Third Punic War.
150 B.C.E.: At around this time, Ctesibius of Greece builds a water clock, or clepsydra.

152 B.C.E.: Jonathan, though not from the high priestly family becomes High Priest by political appointment and alliances, and his most ardent supporter, Alexander Balas, names him governor of Judea.
160 B.C.E.: Jonathan, a Maccabean, assumes leadership of the Hasmonean revolt after the death of his brother, Judas Macabbeus.
163 B.C.E.: A new Syrian army equipped with war elephants attacks and defeats Jewish forces, recapturing the Temple and destroying its fortifications.
164 B.C.E.: The Maccabean Revolution successfully retakes Jerusalem and cleanses the Temple (Hannakah celebration) in December.
167 B.C.E.: Antiochus IV bans obedience to the Jewish Law and devotes the Temple in Jerusalem to Olympian Zues, by offering swine on the Altar and burning copies of the Torah. He sends officers into the holy city to enforce his decrees. It is this attempt to quash Jewish customs and impose the worship of the Greek gods in Palestine that provokes a Jewish revolt led by the Maccabees.

168 B.C.E.: The Macedonian monarchy is abolished when King Perseus is defeated by the Romans.

171 B.C.E.: Antiochus storms Jerusalem, enters the Temple, strips its treasures and stations Syrian soldiers in Jerusalem
174 B.C.E.: Jerusalem is renamed Antioch at Jerusalem and given a Greek city government and Greek school (gymnasion) (back to top)

	HELLENISTIC JUDAISM 173/4 - 63 B.C.E.
	ISRAEL'S FOREIGN DOMINATION AND THE BIBLE'S HISTORICAL SILENCE 424 - 173/4 B.C.E.

THE BOOK OF I MACCABEES c. B.C.E. 175 - 134

175 B.C.E.: The Chinese print the earliest engravings on cloth from stone plates.
179 B.C.E.: Perseus succeeds his father Philip V as king of Macedonia.

THE BOOK OF 2 MACCABEES c. B.C.E. 180 - 161

182 B.C.E.: Hannibal commits suicide to avoid surrendering to Rome.
184 B.C.E.: The Elder Cato is elected censor in Rome.
191 B.C.E.: Seleucid king Antiochus III is defeated by the Romans at Thermopylae.
197 B.C.E.: Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeats Philip V of Macedonia at Cynoscephalae.
200 B.C.E.: Rome unites with Pergamum and Rhodes against Philip V of Macedonia.
200 B.C.E.: Parchment comes into wide use as a writing material.
200 B.C.E.: India's great Hindu epic, the Ramayana, first appears in written form.
202 B.C.E.: The Romans defeat Hannibal at Zama, and Carthage is no longer a power capable of challenging Rome.
204 B.C.E.: Scipio Africanus Major invades North Africa.
206 B.C.E.: Roman general Scipio Africanus Major (the Elder) defeats the Carthaginians in Spain.
206 B.C.E.: The Han dynasty is established in China.
212 B.C.E.: Archimedes is killed during the Roman conquest of Syracuse.
212 B.C.E.: The construction of the Great Wall of China begins to block Mongol tribes.
213 B.C.E.: Shi Huang-ti of China orders the burning of Confucian classics.
216 B.C.E.: Hannibal defeats four Roman legions at Cannae.
218 B.C.E.: The Second Punic War erupts after Hannibal captures the city of Saguntum (Sagunto), a Roman ally, in Spain; he subsequently leads his army, including battle elephants, across the Alps to invade Italy.

219 B.C.E.: Antiochus III of Syria conquers most of Palestine and Simon II, become high priest in Jerusalem.

THE BOOK OF 3 MACCABEES c. B.C.E. 221 - 203

221 B.C.E.: Philip V succeeds Antigonus Doson (Antigonus III) as king of Macedonia.
221 B.C.E.: China is unified under Ch'in emperor Shih Huang-ti, who orders the building of the Great Wall.
222 B.C.E.: Macedonian king Antigonus Doson (Antigonus III) assists the Achaean League in defeating the Spartans.
225 B.C.E.: Archimedes approximates the area of a circle and determines that pi has a value between 3 1/7 and 3 10/71.
230 B.C.E.: The Stavahanas (or Andhras) dynasty of southern India comes to power.
232 B.C.E.: Emperor Asoka of India dies; the Maurya empire begins to disintegrate.
237 B.C.E.: Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca begins a campaign of conquest in Spain.
238 B.C.E.: Corsica and Sardinia are seized from Carthage by Rome.
239 B.C.E.: The appearance of what will come to be called Halley's Comet is recorded.
240 B.C.E.: Eratosthenes of Cyrene calculates the circumference of the Earth.
240 B.C.E.: Lucius Livius Andronicus produces the first Latin literature in Rome.
241 B.C.E.: The First Punic War ends after a Roman naval victory near the Aegates Islands; Carthage is defeated and cedes Sicily to Rome.
247 B.C.E.: Carthaginians, led by Hamilcar Barca, renew their attacks in Sicily in the First Punic War.
247 B.C.E.: The Parthians rebel against the Seleucids in Persia, and Arsaces I becomes the first king of the new Parthian Empire.

250 B.C.E.: The Pentateuch is translated into Greek in Egypt (the Septuagint) by 70 scholars thought to have worked on it. This translation became the Bible of Greek-speaking Jews and later early Christians.

254 B.C.E.: Plautus, ancient Rome's most famous writer of comedy, is born.
256 B.C.E.: Romans led by Marcus Atilius Regulus besiege Carthage but are defeated.
256 B.C.E.: The Chou dynasty ends in China.
260 B.C.E.: Rome defeats Carthage in a naval battle at Mylae during the First Punic War.
264 B.C.E.: The First Punic War, between Rome and Carthage, begins in Sicily.
264 B.C.E.: The first known gladiatorial contests are held in Rome.
273 B.C.E.: The rule of Chandragupta's grandson Asoka, the great Indian emperor and champion of Buddhism, begins. Buddhism becomes the state religion.
274 B.C.E.: Pyrrhus of Epirus seizes Thessaly and Upper Macedonia from Antigonus Gonatas, Antigonid king of Macedonia. 279 B.C.E.: The Gauls defeat the Greeks at Thermopylae.
280 B.C.E.: Greek king Pyrrhus of Epirus aids the Tarentines in their war against Rome.
280 B.C.E.: Herophilus, the Father of Anatomy, and Erasistratus, the Father of Physiology, work and study at the medical school of Alexandria.
280 B.C.E.: The Colossus of Rhodes, a huge bronze statue of the sun god Helios, is completed, one of the "Seven Wonders of the World."
290 B.C.E.: Rome defeats the Samnites, thus ending the Samnite Wars.
290 B.C.E.: The Chinese Taoist philosopher Chuang-tzu dies.
298 B.C.E.: Chandragupta, emperor of India's Maurya Dynasty, dies.
300 B.C.E.: The Parisi tribe of France founds a small fishing village on an island in the Seine River - the origin of the city of Paris.
300 B.C.E.: The Yayoi culture arises in Japan; it is agricultural and produces pottery using a potter's wheel.
300 B.C.E.: Teotihuacán, Mexico, known for its magnificent pyramid, becomes an important urban center; the site is later enlarged by the Aztecs.
300 B.C.E.: A great library is established at Alexandria, Egypt.
300 B.C.E.: Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria is active.
300 B.C.E.: Stoicism is founded by the Greek philosopher Zeno.
305 B.C.E.: Mencius, the second great Confucian philosopher, dies.
306 B.C.E.: Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Dynasty, becomes king of Syria.
311 B.C.E.: Epicurus, the founder of Epicureanism, establishes himself as a teacher on the island of Lesbos.
312 B.C.E.: The Romans begin building the Appian Way (Via Appia).
321 B.C.E.: Chandragupta dethrones and kills the king of Magadha, becoming master of all of northern India.

323 B.C.E.: After Alexander's death, Palestine is controlled by Ptolemy.

323 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great dies at Babylon. His generals, the Diadochi, seize control of his empire; Ptolemy founds the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt.
327 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great arrives in India; the Maurya Dynasty begins its rise there.
331 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great founds Alexandria, Egypt, and later decisively defeats Darius III at the Battle of Arbela (Gaugamela).

330 B.C.E.: Persion rule ends in Palestine, ushering in the Helenistic period, during which the Jews (as they are now called) come under the influence of Greek culture.
332 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great conquers Palestine as most cities and regions surrender to him peacefully.

333 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great defeats Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Issus and subsequently conquers Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt.
335 B.C.E.: The philosopher Aristotle, who had been Alexander the Great's tutor, returns to Athens, where he opens his Lyceum.
336 B.C.E.: Philip II of Macedon is assassinated; Alexander the Great succeeds him as king.
338 B.C.E.: Philip II of Macedon defeats the forces of Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea.
338 B.C.E.: Rome defeats the Latin League after it revolts, and the league is dissolved.
342 B.C.E.: Menander, the leading Athenian dramatist of ancient Greek New Comedy, is born.
347 B.C.E.: Aristotle advances mathematics by founding the science of logic and contributing ideas on definitions, axioms, and infinity.
350 B.C.E.: Roman armies develop the battle tactics of the Roman legion.
350 B.C.E.: Greek mathematician Eudoxus is active; he takes the first step in the creation of calculus and provides the first astronomical theory that accounts for the observed planetary motions.
353 B.C.E.: King Mausolus of Caria dies; Artemesia, his wife and sister, builds the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, an ornate marble monument and tomb in his memory, one of the "Seven Wonders of the World."
359 B.C.E.: Philip II becomes king of Macedon.
370 B.C.E.: Plato writes the Republic.
371 B.C.E.: Epaminondas defeats the Spartans at Leuctra; Thebes is dominant in Greece.

375 B.C.E.: The Aramaic language increasingly replaces Hebrew as the language of most Jews.

THE PROPHET JOEL c. B.C.E. 380

384 B.C.E.: Demosthenes, the greatest orator of ancient Athens, is born.
387 B.C.E.: Gallic king Brennus sacks Rome.
387 B.C.E.: Plato founds the Academy in Athens.
394 B.C.E.: The victory of Conon over the Spartans at Cnidus revives the ambitions of Athens.
396 B.C.E.: The Etruscan city of Veii is conquered after a ten years siege by Romans led by Marcus Furius Camillus.
399 B.C.E.: Socrates is executed for impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens by being forced to drink a cup of hemlock.
399 B.C.E.: Under Xenophon's leadership, the Greek mercenaries engaged by Cyrus the Younger to help him seize the Persian throne struggle home from Babylonia.

THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES c. B.C.E. 400

400 B.C.E.: Sixteen independent states, some monarchies, some republics, exist in northern India between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas.
400 B.C.E.: The kingdom of Aksum (Axum) in Ethiopia flourishes.
400 B.C.E.: The Maya of Central America begin constructing pyramids and other monumental structures.
400 B.C.E.: Democritus, the greatest ancient Greek philosopher of atomism, is active.
404 B.C.E.: Sparta defeats Athens and assumes the leadership of all Greece, ending the Peloponnesian War.
404 B.C.E.: Egypt breaks away from the Persian Empire.
405 B.C.E.: Spartan general Lysander defeats the Athenian fleet under Conon at Aegospotami during the Peloponnesian War. 411 B.C.E.: Thucydides' history of the Peloponnesian War ends abruptly with the events of this year.
411 B.C.E.: Lysistrata, one of the many comedies written by Aristophanes, is produced.
415 B.C.E.: Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus are co-leaders of the ill-fated Athenian expedition against Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War.
420 B.C.E.: Greek physician Hippocrates, the father of medicine and author of the Hippocratic oath, is active. (back to top)

	ISRAEL'S FOREIGN DOMINATION AND THE BIBLE'S HISTORICAL SILENCE 424 - 173 B.C.E.
	THE JEWISH EXILE AND POST-EXILE EXPERIENCE 587 - 425 B.C.E.

425 B.C.E.: The history of Judah enters an obscure period.

429 B.C.E.: Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles, perhaps the greatest of the three famous tragic dramatists of ancient Greece, is performed.
430 B.C.E.: Herodotus writes his history of the Persian Wars.
431 B.C.E.: The Peloponnesian War begins between Athens and Sparta.
431 B.C.E.: Medea by Euripides, the most realistic of the three great ancient Greek tragedians, is produced.
432 B.C.E.: The Parthenon in Athens is completed; it represents the highest achievement of Greek architecture.

444 B.C.E.: After Ezra reads the Torah publically in Jerusalem and the people promise to obey it, Judah becomes, internally, a theocracy led by the high priest.

THE PROPHET NEHEMIAH c. B.C.E. 445 - 443

445 B.C.E.: The ban on marriage between patricians and plebeians is removed in Rome.
446 B.C.E.: The Greek lyric poet Pindar writes his last known ode.
449 B.C.E.: Persia concludes a peace agreement with Athens.
449 B.C.E.: As a result of the bitter dissatisfaction of the legally unprivileged lower class, the plebs, a codification of the customary law of Rome is undertaken.
458 B.C.E.: The great Greek tragic dramatist Aeschylus wins the Athenian tragedy prize for his Oresteia.
461 B.C.E.: Pericles becomes the political leader of Athens.
462 B.C.E.: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, a 40-foot-high (12-meter) seated figure of ivory and gold by the Greek sculptor Phidias, is completed, one of the "Seven Wonders of the World".
470 B.C.E.: The mariner Sataspes, at the command of Persian king Xerxes, journeys along the west coast of Africa.
478 B.C.E.: The Delian League is established under the leadership of Athens.
479 B.C.E.: The Greeks, under Pausanias, defeat the Persians at Plataea.
480 B.C.E.: The Greeks are defeated by the Persians at Thermopylae, and Athens is burned, but the Persian navy is routed at Salamis.

THE HISTORICAL BACKDROP FOR THE BOOK OF ESTHER c. 480 - 474 (not written until 1st cent. B.C.E.)

485 B.C.E.: Jerusalem falls to the Persians.

485 B.C.E.: Darius's son Xerxes begins his reign over the Persian Empire.
490 B.C.E.: The Greeks defeat the Persians in the Battle of Marathon.
490 B.C.E.: The Greek logician and philosopher Zeno of Elea is born.
493 B.C.E.: Rome concludes an alliance with the Latin League.
500 B.C.E.: Darius has a 125 mile long canal dug between the Nile and the Gulf of Suez, opening ship traffic between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.
500 B.C.E.: The La Tène period begins in Central Europe.
500 B.C.E.: In India the city of Kaushambi, capital of the Vasta Kingdom of the Purnas, is built.
500 B.C.E.: Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher, serves in the duke of Lu's government.
500 B.C.E.: The Greek philosophers Heraclitus of Ephesus and Parmenid